Hierarchical Multi-Scale Monitoring of Illegal Wastewater Discharges: Integrated Satellite, UAV, and In Situ Observations at Lake Avernus (Italy)

Environmental monitoring of freshwater ecosystems faces significant challenges in detecting illicit wastewater discharges, which often remain unrecognized due to their intermittent nature and limited spatial footprint. This study presents a novel integrated strategy combining satellite remote sensing, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based proximal sensing, and in situ measurements to enhance pollution detection in vulnerable aquatic environments. The methodology was applied to Lake Avernus (Italy), a volcanic lake historically affected by eutrophication and toxic cyanobacterial blooms. Landsat 8–9 thermal analysis revealed no detectable anomalies, reflecting the limitations of its coarse spatial resolution. Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery was then analyzed through spectral indices, band ratios, and reflectance signatures, revealing localized variations in surface reflectance and spatial heterogeneity in water optical properties. These satellite-derived anomalies guided targeted high-resolution UAV surveys. UAV-based thermal imaging revealed an elevated-temperature zone along the adjacent shoreline. In situ field screening flagged a candidate chemical anomaly at this location. The hierarchical framework demonstrates that satellite screening effectively identifies areas of concern, while UAV thermal imaging enables high-resolution localization of features invisible to satellite sensors, and in situ measurements provide essential ground-truth validation. This replicable, low-cost methodology offers a powerful tool for early warning, surveillance, and sustainable management of sensitive freshwater ecosystems. © 2026 by the authors.